Half-yearly Bilingual Buddhism and Philosophy Journal (ISSN 2347-8004)
The Theoretical Framework: Mind Consciousness and the Prefrontal Cortex
Recent dialogues between Buddhist psychology and cognitive neuroscience reveal striking convergences that invite deeper inquiry. This paper extends that dialogue by examining how the Buddhist construct of mano-viññāņa (mind consciousness, the Sixth Consciousness) aligns with contemporary models of prefrontal function. In Buddhist teachings, Mind Consciousness is viewed as an executive hub, crucial for perception, emotion, and thought. It is likened in classical exegesis to a "stage manager" that selects, amplifies, or suppresses mental objects to shape experience and guide intentional action. These capacities map closely onto the functions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which serves as a neural "conductor" for top-down attention, working-memory manipulation, affective appraisal, and metacognitive monitoring. This paper explores the parallels between the integrative, evaluative, and self-regulatory features of mano-viññāņa and the operations of the distributed neural architecture, including thalamo-cortical relays, limbic memory circuits, and prefrontal control networks, that underpins executive oversight. By anchoring ancient introspective maps within modern neurobiology, this integrative framework yields a more comprehensive account of human cognition and affect than either tradition can provide alone. References: Ānāpānasati Sutta (MN-118). Original Pāli Canon scriptures. Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: a conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 125. Buckner, R. L., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2008). The brain’s default network: Anatomy, function, and relevance to disease. Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences, 1124, 1-38. Davidson, R. J., & Lutz, A. (2008). Buddha's brain: Neuroplasticity and meditation [in the spotlight]. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 25(1), 176-174. Desbordes, G., Negi, L. T., Pace, T. W., Wallace, B. A., Raison, C. L., & Schwartz, E. L. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 23050. Fox, K. C., Nijeboer, S., Dixon, M. L., Floman, J. L., Ellamil, M., Rumak, S. P., ... & Christoff, K. (2014). Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 43, 48-73. Hölzel, B. K., Lazar, S. W., Gard, T., Schuman-Olivier, Z., Vago, D. R., & Ott, U. (2011). How does mindfulness meditation work? Proposing mechanisms of action from a conceptual and neural perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(6), 537-559. Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144-156. Lutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Dunne, J. D., & Davidson, R. J. (2008). Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(4), 163-169. Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (D.N.-22 and M.N.-10). Original Pāli Canon scriptures. Menon, V. (2015). Salience network. In A. W. Toga (Ed.), Brain Mapping: An Encyclopedic Reference (Vol. 2, pp. 597-611). Academic Press. Seeley, W. W., Menon, V., Schatzberg, A. F., et al. (2007). Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. Journal of Neuroscience, 27(9), 2349-2356. Singh, N., & Kapoor, A. (2025). Bridging Mindful Awareness and Dialectical Thinking for Crisis Leadership: A Framework Grounded in Dependent Origination. Bodhi Path, 28(1), 14-24. Tang, Y. Y., Hölzel, B. K., & Posner, M. I. (2015). The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 213-225.
Buddhicization of Chinese Culture: A Historical Overview
The complicated tapestry of cultural exchange between India and China has been twisted over millennia, characterized by a dynamic interplay of ideas, practices, and artistic expressions. This spectacle, often referred to as the "Buddhicization of Chinese Culture," summarized the profound influence that Indian philosophical thought, religious practices, and artistic traditions have exerted on Chinese society. The historical overview of this cultural exchange is not merely a version of one of the impacts of the civilizations over another one. It is a complex novelette of mutual adaptation, negotiation, and transformation that has shaped both cultures in remarkable ways. This is an ability to understand this Buddhicization process which requires a multifaceted approach that considers historical contexts, socio-political dynamics, and the transnational flow of ideas. The basic foundations of Indian Buddhist cultural influence in China can be traced back to the early centuries of the Common Era i.e. 206 BCE to 220 CE (China), particularly with the spread of Buddhism. As one of the most significant cultural exports from India, Buddhism served as a conduit for various Indian Buddhist philosophies, artistic styles, and even linguistic elements to permeate Chinese society. A trade route better known as Silk Route, is a network connecting the East and West not only for the exchange of goods furthermore for the transmission of cultural and religious ideas too. Consequently, it has interconnected the permission to Indian Buddhist monks, scholars, and traders to travel to China. These lead to bringing with them their beliefs, texts, and artistic traditions. This tradition has had an impact in China which leads to the translation of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese language particularly from the period of Han dynasty (206BCE-220CE). Therefore, the era of the Han dynasty marked a climactic moment in this cultural exchange, laying the groundwork for the eventual integration of Indian Buddhist thought into Chinese intellectual and spiritual life.
बुद्ध-धम्म के उत्थान में बिहार की महान् भिक्खुनियों एवं उपासिकाओं का योगदान
This research paper delves into the influential role played by the women of Bihar—specifically bhikkhunis (ordained nuns) and upasikas (lay female followers)—in the development and propagation of Buddhism during and after the time of the Buddha. It provides a socio-historical analysis of how these women overcame deep-rooted patriarchal norms to become pivotal figures in religious reform and spiritual leadership. The study foregrounds the active involvement of notable female figures such as Mahapajapati Gotami, Khema, Patacara, Dhammadinna, Bhadda Kundalakesa, and Visakha, among others. Drawing on canonical sources like the Therigatha and Jataka Tales, the paper chronicles their personal transformations—from royal consorts, aristocrats, and courtesans to enlightened bhikkhunis—revealing how each woman’s spiritual journey became a testimony to inner resilience and dharmic conviction. Through these biographies, the paper highlights themes of gender equality, renunciation, spiritual discipline, and the struggle against societal injustices. It also underscores Bihar’s historical significance as a cradle of early Buddhist education, monastic culture, and women's emancipation within the Buddhist sangha. A significant part of the study is devoted to Sanghamitta's mission to Sri Lanka, where she established a bhikkhuni sangha, emphasizing the transnational impact of Bihar’s Buddhist women. The author argues that this legacy of inclusion and spiritual contribution laid the foundation for a more egalitarian vision of society.
The Impact of Buddhist Philosophy on Global Peace-building Efforts
Buddhist philosophy, which emphasizes compassion, non-violence, and interdependence, has significantly impacted global peace-building efforts. Rooted in the teachings of the Buddha, key principles such as mindfulness (sati), loving-kindness (metta), and ethical conduct (sīla) offer a framework for resolving conflicts, fostering dialogue, and promoting harmony among diverse communities. This study examines the application of Buddhist teachings in contemporary peace-building practices, highlighting their influence on grassroots movements and international initiatives. Buddhist leaders and practitioners have historically emphasized the importance of addressing the root causes of conflict, such as greed, hatred, and ignorance. They believe that pursuing inner peace is essential for achieving societal peace. Modern examples of Buddhist-inspired peace-building include the contributions of figures like Thich Nhat Hanh, the Dalai Lama, and Sulak Sivaraksa. Their efforts in non-violent resistance, interfaith dialogue, and environmental advocacy have made a significant global impact. Buddhist-inspired mindfulness and meditation practices have become increasingly popular in conflict resolution workshops and trauma healing programs around the world. These practices offer tools to help foster empathy and understanding among conflicting parties. Additionally, international organizations like the United Nations have incorporated Buddhist principles into their peace-building frameworks, acknowledging their universal relevance. This paper discusses the challenges and opportunities of applying Buddhist philosophy to global peace efforts, especially in culturally and religiously diverse contexts. It emphasizes the transformative potential of Buddhism in fostering not only the absence of violence but also a comprehensive vision of peace based on mutual respect, compassion, and sustainable development. Ultimately, the research aims to demonstrate how the ancient wisdom of Buddhism continues to play a meaningful role in modern strategies for achieving global peace.
Prominence of Jataka Tales in Indian History
The word Jataka means “related to birth.” According to the theory of evolution, it takes thousands of years for a bud to develop into a flower. Can any wise person suddenly, in one lifetime, become enlightened or a Buddha? To reach that state, one must undergo countless births. Even the Buddha had to go through numerous rebirths. Before becoming the Buddha, he lived through many previous lives and had intense resolve in his final birth. The term resolve refers to a determined aspiration, while virtue means ethical action. Therefore, a being who aspires for Buddhahood engages in determined virtuous acts—this stage is referred to as resolve. The Jataka tales describe the lives of fifty previous births (Bodhisattva incarnations) of the Buddha during which he cultivated the virtues that eventually led to enlightenment. Just as the Buddha inspired people through his teachings and gentle approach, similarly these stories too convey profound lessons through simple and accessible means. The Bodhisattva in these tales often takes the form of animals, birds, or sometimes remains human to address and resolve complex societal problems with wisdom and compassion. These tales portray Bodhisattvas in various forms—trees, elephants, lions, monkeys, birds, sages, kings, etc.—to illustrate moral and ethical teachings. Through the medium of storytelling, Jataka tales simplify complex religious and ethical ideas. These are a part of oral literature. The tales include both animal fables and human stories. Scholar Foucher classified the Jataka tales into seven categories: Practical Policy-Related Tales Animal Stories Stories with Complete Context in Philosophy and Morality Tales of Yogic Accomplishment and Asceticism Moral Discourses Parables and Metaphors Religious Narratives These tales display a wide range of expression—sometimes narrative, sometimes poetic, sometimes philosophical, and sometimes even dramatic or lyrical. Their linguistic form varies based on content and purpose. In Indian history, Jataka tales hold special importance. They represent the social, religious, political, economic, and moral life of ancient India. In fact, they are not just crucial to Indian history but also have a prominent place in the world’s literary and cultural heritage. Their documentation is unmatched. Jataka tales are a valuable resource for understanding the structure and dynamics of ancient Indian society. For example, the Vessantara Jataka provides insights into the political life of the time. From them, we learn about ancient India's education system, curriculum, subjects, and practical and theoretical knowledge—covering aspects such as residence, food habits, and trade. These stories vividly describe the roads and urban planning of famous cities like Vaishali, Rajgriha, Mithila, Mathura, Kapilavastu, and Kausambi, and depict the local markets and waterways. Illustrations from Jataka tales also reveal ancient scripts and linguistic forms. The Brahmins of the time held a high status in society. In fact, Brahmins and Kshatriyas were considered the most respected classes. Slavery was prevalent. From these tales, we gather that people could be bought and sold like commodities, and even a prince could be traded. The Buddha’s disciples were from diverse social backgrounds. The teachings in these tales often revolve around moral values. From them, we learn that during those times, people were deeply religious. Worship of kings, trees, snakes, and rivers was common. Jataka tales had a significant influence on ancient Indian philosophy, literature, and subsequent narrative traditions. They are a bridge between early oral traditions and the later classical literary culture of India.
प्राचीन भारतीय कला और वास्तुकला का विकास
This research paper explores the evolution and significance of ancient Indian art and architecture, examining its major forms—stupa architecture, temple construction, sculpture, painting, and handicrafts—as integral to the spiritual, cultural, and social fabric of Indian civilization. It highlights how these artistic expressions developed over time, influenced by religious movements such as Buddhism and Hinduism, and how they served as mediums of devotion, symbolism, and societal reflection. The paper begins by analyzing the development of stupas, initially simple mounds built to enshrine the relics of the Buddha, which gradually evolved into complex architectural structures adorned with carvings depicting scenes from the Buddha’s life. It then delves into temple architecture, noting its formal elements—sanctum (garbhagriha), pavilion (mandapa), spire (shikhara), and enclosure (prakar)—and traces its stylistic evolution, particularly during the Gupta period. The study further explores sculpture, both Buddhist and Hindu, highlighting its religious and social narratives and its role in shaping cultural identity. Painting, from early religious murals in Ajanta and Ellora to courtly Mughal miniatures, is shown to be a vibrant reflection of both divine and worldly themes. Lastly, the paper examines craft traditions such as metalwork, woodwork, and stone carving, showcasing their aesthetic and functional contributions to Indian art heritage. In conclusion, the paper emphasizes that ancient Indian art and architecture not only fulfilled religious functions but also mirrored the collective psyche and way of life of Indian society. Their legacy continues to define India's rich cultural identity and global artistic influence.
This paper undertakes a vexillological reading of the Tibetan national flag, examining its historical evolution, symbolic imagery, and significance in articulating Tibetan identity and resistance. While much scholarly attention has been devoted to Tibetan Buddhist prayer flags, the national flag—popularly known as the Snow Lion Flag—remains under-explored within vexillological discourse. Drawing on semiotics, cultural history, and political theory, the paper analyses the flag’s imagery, including the snow lion, mountain, sun, and the debated yin-yang motif, to uncover its embedded narratives of sovereignty, spirituality, and collective memory. It traces the flag’s transformation from a military standard under the Thirteenth Dalai Lama to its role as a banned yet potent symbol of resistance in contemporary Tibet and exile communities. Ultimately, the paper argues that the Tibetan flag functions not merely as a political emblem, but as a dynamic, transhistorical artefact embodying national aspiration, cultural continuity, and decolonial identity in the face of occupation.
Tibet, vexillology, national flag, symbolism, snow lion, exile, identity, resistance, semiotics, decoloniality
Re-vitalizing Law of Causation in the context of Contemporary World Economy
Buddhism or Buddhist philosophy incorporates the teachings of Gautam Buddha, which mainly involves the system of logic and dialectic to find out the reality of all worldly phenomena and human life. The Buddha analysed and questioned the contradictions of existing social and spiritual thoughts of his time that gave birth to new idea or path leading to proper Salvation. The Buddha identified Aniccā/Anitya (Impermanence), Dukkhā/Duḥkha (suffering) and Anattā/Anātman (No – soul), the Trilakshan as three characteristics of existence. Anitya means impermanent nature of all the matters and phenomena (life, object, idea etc). Dukkha means suffering, the world which is full of suffering i.e. from birth to death, whatever lies within is suffering, which is also impermanent in nature. Anātman means No-soul, soul is a Vedic construct that guides and controls the nature of the life of a being, which can neither be manipulated, nor can be destroyed. However, the Buddha rejected this concept of soul as it is the karmic actions that colour the human consciousness which is responsible for all the activities that we perform and reap result accordingly. If a being is guided with right knowledge, it leads to perform good karmic activities and vice-versa. If there is something which controls our life and can be manipulated, then every being should be perfect and equal in size? However, it is clearly not so. Hence, karma and right knowledge are the driving force behind every fate of humans or all kind of living creature in nature. Thus, in order to understand the theory behind these regulations of different karmic forces, it seems appropriate to revitalize the understanding of the Buddhist theory of Law of causation or the Doctrine of Dependent origination or Paṭiccasamuppāda (in Pali) .Therefore, this Paper is yet an attempt to elaborate the doctrine of dependent origination in detailed manner and underline its relevance as an essential for contemporary world economy in order to achieve the Buddhist ideal of peace and prosperity in contemporary time by keeping in view the Primary text like Mahâvagga and several other secondary sources.
The Cognitive Chain of Craving: Analysis of the Nine Stages of Mind Contamination and the Interceptive Role of Sati and Vipassanā
This paper examines the Theravāda Buddhist framework of the "nine stages of mind contamination" as detailed in the Abhidhamma text, the Patisambhidāmagga in the Khuddaka Nikāya. It outlines the progression from initial sensory contact (citta) to an entirely defiled consciousness-aggregate (viññāṇakkhandha). The main emphasis is on the practical application of mindfulness (sati) and insight (vipassanā) as interceptive mechanisms at each stage. By analyzing how specific mindfulness practices (satipaṭṭhāna) counter the development of craving (taṇhā) and karmic formation, the paper elucidates the framework for purifying the mind and preventing suffering. This analysis examines the cognitive progression that leads to defilement and the specific contemplative skills required to interrupt it. References: Access to Insight. (n.d.). Retrieved July 1, 2025, from https://www.accesstoinsight.org Bodhi, B. (n.d.). Retrieved July 1, 2025, from https://boeddhaweg.files.wordpress.com Buddhadhamma. (n.d.). Retrieved July 3, 2025, from https://buddhadhamma.github.io Buddhism StackExchange. (n.d.). Retrieved July 1, 2025, from https://buddhism.stackexchange.com Dhammatalks.org. (n.d.). Retrieved July 3, 2025, from https://www.dhammatalks.org eDhamma. (n.d.). Retrieved July 3, 2025, from https://edhamma.github.io PureDhamma. (n.d.). Citta, Mano, Viññāṇa – Nine Stages of Mind Contamination. Retrieved July 4, 2025, from https://puredhamma.net/citta-mano-vinnana-nine-stages-of-mind-contamination/ Singh, N., & Kapoor, A. (2025). Bridging Mindful Awareness and Dialectical Thinking for Crisis Leadership: A Framework Grounded in Dependent Origination. Bodhi Path, 28(1), 14-24. SuttaCentral. (n.d.). Paṭisambhidāmagga. Retrieved July 4, 2025, from https://suttacentral.net Tricycle. (n.d.). Retrieved July 6, 2025, from https://tricycle.org Wikipedia. (n.d.). Paṭisambhidāmagga. Retrieved July 6, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paṭisambhidāmagga Wikipedia. (n.d.). Visuddhimagga. Retrieved July 8, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visuddhimagga
The Role of Women in Ancient Indian History: A Re-Evaluation
This paper re‑evaluates women’s roles in ancient India, tracing their trajectory from the relative autonomy of the early Vedic period to the patriarchal constraints codified in later texts like the Manusmriti. Drawing on literary, epigraphic and artistic evidence, it highlights female scholars, ritual partners and royal diplomats; analyses the impact of Buddhist and Jain monastic orders in offering alternative spaces for agency; and reads epic heroines and goddess iconography as cultural barometers of gender ideals. Despite increasing marginalisation, women continually negotiated power within domestic, religious and political spheres. Understanding this complexity enriches broader debates on gender and historiography.
Human mind swims in the dark waters of deluge and dissatisfaction and varied human frailties in search of Knowledge to dispel this darkness. The Vedic prayer of Tamso ma jyotirgamaya underlines this quest. Om asto ma sadgamaya. Tamso ma sadagamaya mrityorya amrita gamaya. Om shanti shanti shanti.. Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (1.328) Om, from falsehood lead me to Truth, From Darkness lead me to light, from death to immortality, peace in three states of life: physical, mental, and spiritual. This journey traverses across geographical and man- made boundaries and cross cultural interactions. This interface created a historical narrative enriching the corpus of all the disciplines of Knowledge. A number of factors facilitated the interface between India and China. One of the significant factors has been the trade routes connecting the different geographical regions despite the existence of hazardous terrain. The well-known routes were the Silk route and the Sea route. There are references to both the countries in the ancient Indian literature—Vedas, epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata etc. and the Chinese records. The Indian monks as well as monks from Central Asia travelled to China and became instrumental in spreading Buddhism there through their translation works, establishment of monasteries etc. An attempt has been made here to present a detailed discussion on some of the monks who travelled to China and vice versa. The list is not exhaustive. The discussion is also made about the Chinese monks who visited India. The travelogues have provided a lot of information about the geography of India, Buddhist Stupas and Monasteries, Indian culture, climate, and calendar etc.
डॉ अंबेडकर : आधुनिक भारत के मुख्य शिल्पकार के रूप में
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's popular name was "Babasaheb Ambedkar." Babasaheb was the architect of the Indian Constitution and is also regarded as a prominent global leader and jurist. His efforts toward the upliftment of society and his contributions were of immense significance. Babasaheb made outstanding efforts against social evils such as untouchability, caste hierarchy, and the varna system through relentless struggle. Throughout his life, he fought for the rights of Dalits and other socially disadvantaged groups. His major contribution was his vital role in drafting the Indian Constitution after independence. He served as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution. His contributions are remembered as those of a key architect in the creation and establishment of various institutions in independent India. Dr. Ambedkar was appointed as the first Law Minister of independent India in Jawaharlal Nehru's cabinet. On October 14, 1956, he embraced Buddhism and initiated a significant religious transformation. Posthumously, the Government of India honored him with the Bharat Ratna award in 1990. This research paper has been compiled based on various sources.
Fostering Unity: Collaborative Eﬀorts for Global Harmony
This article intends to explore the potential that Buddhist principles hold to foster global unity and harmony in the contemporary issues of political nature. The teachings offered by Buddhism contribute to the idea of world peace and global harmony. Through the concepts of such the theory of interdependence or dependent arising (pratītyasamutpāda) and compassion (karuṇā), a world that has harmony and peace can be cultivated. (Anālayo, 2020)
The term "Pāli" refers to a collection of sacred texts used by Buddhists. The literature written in the Pāli language primarily addresses religious and philosophical themes. Pāli literature is comprised of a rich assortment of Buddhist texts and scriptures. The most significant part of Buddha's teachings is known as the "Tipitaka," which many believe contains the original teachings of the Buddha. While scholarly opinions vary regarding the existence of writing in India before the time of Asoka (3rd century B.C.), there is a consensus among historians that the earliest phase of the Buddhist textual tradition was oral. It is believed that both the Tipitaka and its commentary were written down during the reign of Vattagāmanī Abhaya in the first century B.C. This event took place at the Fourth Buddhist Council, where the Pāli Tipitaka was formally recorded for the first time, as it had previously been transmitted orally from generation to generation. Today there is no real peace and happiness in the world. All people are running here and there to bring peace and happiness to society. It shows that there is something lacking in the minds of people. We need the religious principle that can bring peace to individuals and society. Thus, mettā, or ' loving-kindness' becomes an essential factor in restoring peace to society. Different interpretations are made in the case of the word mettā according to the context in which it is applicable. Since the word has been arbitrarily used mettā may denote many meanings. When the concept of love is being discussed, scholars may use it differently according to the basic knowledge which they have. Here, the Pāli word 'Mettā' is strictly used in the sense of Loving-kindness, and not in the sense of ordinary, sensual, emotional, passionate love. In fact, the word 'Love' has various denotations and connotations in English, according to the contexts in which it is used. My research paper shall be focused on mettā in Pāli Literature. Further, I will also talk about the Braham vihāra in my research paper. The proposed paper will provide a detailed explanation of these points.
Bridging Mindful Awareness and Dialectical Thinking for Crisis Leadership: A Framework Grounded in Dependent Origination
Crises in organizational and societal contexts often place leaders under intense psychological and temporal pressures. These pressures can trigger cognitive distortions—such as black-and-white thinking, catastrophizing, and overgeneralization—that impair decision-making and aggravate conflicts. This paper proposes a Mindful Conflict-Resolution Toolkit for leaders, woven from three foundational threads: (1) Mindfulness to maintain emotional and situational awareness, (2) Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda) to clarify the interdependent causes and conditions that contribute to a crisis, and (3) Dialectical Thinking to integrate contradictory stakeholder perspectives. By detailing a five-step approach—Mindful Grounding & Cognitive Distortion Check, Crisis Chain Mapping, Dialectical Leadership Discussion, Mindful Decision-Making Protocol, and Post-Crisis Reflection—this paper illustrates how leaders can mitigate stress-induced biases, make balanced decisions swiftly, and foster collaborative solutions. The proposed framework aims not only to resolve immediate crises but also to cultivate an organizational culture of psychological safety, continuous learning, and sustainable conflict resolution. An example of a cybersecurity breach scenario demonstrates how these tools can transform a crisis from a reactive event into a constructive turning point. We conclude by emphasizing the benefits of a holistic, mindful, and dialectical leadership style for navigating turbulent organizational environments.
Buddhism is a religion of peace, humanism, and the spirit of scientific inquiry. If the human ideas of Lord Buddha are implemented for the benefit of society, then all forms of suffering in human society can be eradicated with ease. Buddhism is a collection of principles that help us understand the true nature of the self and develop our inherent human potential. In Buddhist philosophy, discussions are held on topics such as mutual relationships, practices, and causes and effects. These involve a detailed system of logic and reasoning that aids in comprehending the vast ideas of the philosophy. Buddhist ethics are based on the capability to differentiate between what is beneficial and what is harmful, both for oneself and for others. Buddhism fundamentally rejects the existence of an eternal God or soul. Instead, Buddha provided four noble truths regarding social suffering and showed the Middle Path as the way forward. Through the Middle Path, Buddha taught that humans should avoid all extremes of indulgence and asceticism. They should follow a balanced path that helps alleviate suffering. The essence of equanimity lies in maintaining a balanced state of mind and life, where neither excessive desires nor excessive restraint takes over. A balanced individual is one who controls their senses, practices meditation, and avoids harm to themselves or others. The Buddhist concept of moderation includes a balanced speech, action, and livelihood, referred to as the "Noble Eightfold Path." Various Buddhist texts explore this philosophy in depth, including the five moral precepts known as the Panchshila. Before joining the monastic order, individuals take vows based on the Panchshila: non-violence, truthfulness, refraining from theft, abstaining from harmful actions, and refraining from intoxication. These vows are a foundation for laypersons but are stricter for monks. For monks, daily life involves adhering to stricter codes of conduct, like abstaining from luxurious items and engaging in meditation, chanting, and other spiritual practices. This philosophy teaches a way of life rooted in ethical conduct and inner peace. Today, the world is plagued with challenges like violence, political instability, and religious conflicts. Humanity faces grave moral crises, despite the advancements in science, technology, and communication. While these advancements have brought material prosperity, they have also intensified conflicts and divisions among people. Buddha emphasized the analysis of human emotions and stated that the mind is the ruler of all actions. Therefore, to regulate wrong tendencies, individuals must cultivate noble thoughts and walk on the path of virtue. Buddha offered this path in the form of the Buddhist Dhamma. Regarding mutual cooperation, Buddha said that there is no hatred greater than hatred itself, and this principle remains universally relevant. Thus, recognizing the factors that create hatred and eliminating them was a significant teaching of Buddha. He propagated the principles of moral and compassionate living through the Panchshila and the middle path, aimed at reducing human suffering. Today, as India and the world witness various religious tensions and conflicts, these challenges have become a matter of concern. In India, incidents of communal violence and caste-based exploitation have harmed numerous innocent lives. Hence, if India is to uphold secularism and religious freedom, it must adopt the principles of Buddhist equality, compassion, and non-violence.
Human consciousness being, one of the greatest mysteries of this universe manifolds the very epicenter of the mind in certain ways through awareness of internal and external existence. Consciousness comprises of six categories: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and mental consciousness in which the first five are sense consciousness. Each emerges depending on a physical sense faculty and the last is the mental consciousness (manovijñāna) [1]which arises depending on the mental sense faculty furthermore in Buddhist psychology, there is seventh consciousness and eighth consciousness namely the mind – consciousness (manas-vijñāna) and the storehouse consciousness (ālāyavijñāna). Hence, consciousness is something that occurs uninterruptedly throughout all of one’s worldly lifetime. It descends into the mother’s womb at the beginning of each life and departs at the end of one’s death and so on the process continues through a cycle of birth and rebirth, and ends with nirvana. Whereas subduing the thought that consciousness departs as one dies can be rationally subdued by the incorporation of a high level of meditation which enables one to achieve spiritual liberation by experiencing the fundamental nature of the mind which is known as Tukdam.
The Ethnic and Religious Fusion of Darjeeling: A Historical Reflection
The Tibetan form of Buddhism has migrated into and found its base in some places within India especially after 1959. When the migration that took place prior to 1959, there existed constant relations between the two nations (India and Tibet) which had seen the doors open for religious tolerance and intermingling. However Buddhism has always been credited to be the religion/ study that had emerged from the pious grounds of India. Though many hypotheses have been proposed on the origin of the Lepchas, it is now recognized by the government that they were and are the original inhabitants of the region now covering districts of Kalimpong, Darjeeling, and the state of Sikkim. These three regions are not new to migrants since the British era, and even prior to the British, migration had taken place in Sikkim especially from Tibet. So, one may rightly say that Tibetans were the first migrants into Kalimpong, Darjeeling and Sikkim. The areas of Kalimpong, Darjeeling and Sikkim, are also where migrants brought along with them various forms of religions and cultures that they had been practicing. Consequently, there are different religions that are prevalent in Kalimpong, Darjeeling and Sikkim namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam which are being taken up by the society that resides in these parts. The harmony in which all these religions coincide and live harmoniously sometimes adopting the others customs and traditions yet preserving their own is a uniqueness of these parts.
Depictions of Buddha's Life in Indian Art: Selected Sculptures from the National Museum, New Delhi
"Depictions of Buddha's Life in Indian Art: Selected Sculptures from the National Museum, New Delhi" examines how important moments in the life of Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha, are shown artistically in Indian sculpture. These sculptures, which are kept in the National Museum in New Delhi, provide a visual tour of the pivotal moments in the life of the Buddha, from his conception to his realization of enlightenment. The spiritual core of Buddha's life is preserved and communicated in large part through Indian art, especially sculpture. Important events including Siddhartha's birth, his renunciation of the royal life, his enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, his first sermon, and his Mahāparinirvāṇa (death and ultimate release) are shown in the museum's sculptures. The diverse range of creative techniques used to depict these stories reflects the cultural and religious diversity of India throughout its history. The sculptures' theological and philosophical lessons are reflected in them in addition to their historical and aesthetic relevance. These artworks employ particular mudras, or hand movements, to represent many facets of Buddha's teachings, including knowledge, compassion, and the ability to overcome suffering. These sculptures encourage people to consider the core ideas of Buddhism by acting as a visual and spiritual conduit. The National Museum provides a valuable perspective on how Indian art has preserved the life and legacy of Buddha over the ages through this collection. This article aims to study Buddha’s life episodes in different periods, regions, etc. through stone sculptures. It will be analyzed based on select sculptures.
Stone Sculpture, Iconography, Buddha’s Life Episodes, Mudrās, Select Sculptures from National Museum, New Delhi.
Ten Perfections and the Octa Dimensional Route of Purification
Siddaṭṭha Gautama, heir of King Suddhodhan and Queen Māhāmāyā of Kapilvaṭṭhu kingdom achieved Perfect Enlightenment, Bodhi after accomplishing all the ten perfections beneath the Peepal (Ficus Religiosa) tree eminent as “Bodhi Tree” at Urevella, presently known as Bodhagaya. The our Buddha meditated for several eons to accomplish all the ten perfections from the time of Dipāṅkar Buddha, the first Buddha in the chronology of Buddhas. At the time of Dipānkar Buddha, Siddaṭṭha Gautama, our Buddha, was born as Sumegha Pandita in a wealthy and erudite family. He renounced his royal family’s luxury life, vast assets and eminence after passing away of his parents and became an ascetic thereafter. One day Dipāṅkar Buddha had to visit a city, Sumegha Pandita observed that some people of the city were busy in decorating the place in a beautiful manner to welcome him. He comes to know after enquiring a person that Dipānkar Buddha was being visited this place. Thereafter he requested to do some work in honour of Dipānkar Buddha. He was allowed to fulfil his volition. The Bodhisattva Sumegha Pandita made an aspiration at the feet of Dipānkara Buddha that he would achieved Enlightenment like Dipānkar Buddha and become a Buddha in the future. These Ten Perfections become the standard constituents of the Bodhisattva’s practice and the essentials requirements for achieving ultimate goal, The Bodhi. The practice of ten perfections is treated in broad and general terms to be accomplished by practising Vipassanā meditation. The technique of Vipassanā meditation passes directly from the time of Buddha through the chain of teachers-students tradition for a period of thousand years.
डॉ. अंबेडकर का आधुनिक भारत में "नव बौद्ध यान धर्म" के रूप में पुनरुत्थान।
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, during the mid-20th century, spearheaded revolutionary changes in modern India against the caste system, casteism, racism, religious rituals, Brahmanical dominance, communalism, and untouchability. His efforts led to the welfare of marginalized communities, including the Shudras, Dalits, oppressed classes, indigenous people, and the socially backward. He inspired society to work towards freedom, equality, and fraternity. Ultimately, on October 14, 1956, Dr. Ambedkar renounced Hinduism and, along with his followers, embraced Buddhism. He established Neo-Buddhism, a modern adaptation of Buddhist philosophy. This research paper aims to examine the ideas of Buddha's Buddhist philosophy and Ambedkar's Neo-Buddhist movement, focusing on their contributions to social reform and the structural transformation of society.
त्रिविध बुद्ध वैशाख पूर्णिमा : बुद्ध की वैश्विक समुदाय को देन
The significance of the threefold Buddha Vaishakh Purnima in Pali Tripitaka literature is a legacy for the entire global community. This day reflects three important events related to the life of Lord Buddha. In which the birth of Siddhartha Gautama, the attainment of Buddhahood, and the Mahaparinirvana are prominent. All these three events and the teachings of Lord Buddha's Dhamma (teachings) such as- Sheel, Samadhi, Prajna, etc., which are the path to liberation from the sufferings of the entire human race from physical life to worldly life. By adopting which the seeker can make his life valuable and achieve his goal (Nirvana). The basis of this research paper is Pali Tripitaka literature (original) and Vipassana Visodhana Vinyasa, Igatpuri, Nashik's Pali and Anupitaka literature as secondary sources.
The word perfection means the state or feeling of being complete. That is, which is completely filled, in which no space or place is left empty. Therefore, by reducing craving, a man moves towards perfection. Just as a man characterized by perfection is completely satisfied and content in every way. In this sequence, Siddhartha also attained perfection as a result of continuous practice of many births and was called Buddha. His birth, enlightenment after birth and Mahaparinirvana became symbols of perfection by being perfect. (पूर्णता शब्द का अर्थ पूर्ण होने की अवस्था या भाव है | अर्थात् जो पूरी तरह से भरा हुआ हो, जिसमें कोई अवकाश या स्थान रिक्त न रह गया हो | अतः तृष्णा को घटाकर ही मनुष्य पूर्णता की ओर अगसर होता है | जिस प्रकार पूर्णता से प्रतिपादित मनुष्य सभी तरह से तृप्त और सन्तुष्ट होता है | इसी क्रम में सिद्धार्थ ने भी अनेक जन्मों की अनवरत साधाना के फलस्वरूप पूर्णत्व प्राप्त किया और वे बुद्ध कहलाये | उनका जन्म, जन्म के पश्चात् सम्बोधि एवं महापरिनिर्वाण में परिपूर्ण होकर पूर्णता के प्रतीक बने |)
The Position of Women During the Pre-Buddhist Period
The position of women in Ancient India history has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia. According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic period. From the evidence of the Ṛg Veda, the earliest literature of the Indo-Aryans, that woman held an honourable place in early Indian society. There were a few Ṛg Vedic hymns composed by women. Women had access to the highest knowledge and could participate in all religious ceremonies. In domestic life too she was respected and there was no suggestion of seclusion of women and child marriage. At a later stage, when the priestly Brāhmaṇas dominated the Indian society, religion lost its spontaneity and became a mass of ritual. From this time onwards, we observe a downward trend in the position accorded to women. The most relentless of the Brāhmaṇas law-givers was Manu whose Code of Laws is the most anti-feminist literature one could find. At the outset Manu deprived woman of her religious rights and spiritual life. Śūdras, slaves and women were prohibited from reading the Vedas. A woman could not attain heaven through any merit of her own. She could not worship or perform a sacrifice by herself. She could reach heaven only through implicit obedience to her husband, be he debauched or devoid of all virtues. Having thus denied her any kind of spiritual and intellectual nourishment, Manu elaborated the myth that all women were sinful and prone to evil. She should therefore be kept under constant vigilance. The best way to do this was to keep her occupied in the tasks of motherhood and domestic duties so that she has no time for mischief. Despite this denigration there was always in Indian thought an idealization of motherhood and a glorification of the feminine concept. But in actual practice, it could be said by and large, Manu'sreputed Code of Laws did influence social attitudes towards women, at least in the higher realms of the society.
The core belief of Buddhism is represented by the Four Noble Truths. It serves as the cornerstone of the middle path. And while there is happiness in the world, of course, both are momentary because there is suffering or unhappiness in it. The four noble truths, which the Buddha taught, are significant in this regard. The four noble truths also show that the cycle of consciousness and suffering are impermanent. The first and second noble truths admonish us to consider carefully on ecological principles. The first noble truth states that the suffering that results from traditional lifestyles is permanent.According to the second noble truth, ignorance-based desire that's what causes suffering. The second noble truth, which emphasises desire as the source of experiencing pain, serves as the cornerstone of a Buddhist environmental ethic. The third noble truth asserts that efforts can now be made to lessen or completely eradicate environmental issues. Because of their ignorance of nature, people must realise that they are a part of the natural world, just like all other living things. The fourth noble truth declares that it is our duty to come to an agreement on the fundamental duties to end suffering in the world. The noble eightfold path includes cultivating a deep compassion for all other living things trapped in this web of dependent originations. This compassion or empathy is necessary for the Buddhist road to freedom. The idea of dependent origination has several implications, one of which is that there is no anthropocentric bias favouring people over the natural world. Interestingly, the non-self-teaching takes on ontology in Buddhism and ultimately leads to the conclusion among Buddhists that there is a common boundary between cycle of rebirth and in another. All living things that are troubled and afflicted are the targets of compassion. On the emotional side, it stands for love, goodness, tolerance, and other great values
The Life of Prince Siddhartha and the Principal Doctrine of the Buddha
As Siddhartha, son of Suddhodana, the chief of the Sākya Republic, the Buddha was born and raised in Kapilvatthu. His mother Maha̅ma̅ya gave birth to him in a grove at Lumbini while she was travelling from kapilavatthu to her parents' home and died after seven days after the birth of Siddhartha. The story goes that soon after he was born, an old sage named Asita visited King Suddhodhana's palace to see the newborn child. It is said that "on seeing the marks of greatness on its delicate limbs, Asita laughed and shed tears of sorrow" These marks can be related to the 32 marks of a Mahapurusa. According to the Buddhist tradition, a maha̅purusa can be of two kinds – "A World Conqueror or World Renouncer." But King Suddhodana wanted his son to be an Emperor. He did not want his son to turn his back on the world and hence took great pains to shield him from its sorrows and protect the young prince from worldly suffering. So he brought him up in a highly artificial atmosphere, with three palaces to suit the three seasons, surrounded by luxury and pleasant things. Siddhartha married Yashodhara, and they were blessed with a son named Rahula. The hagiography tells us that when Siddhartha was 29 years old, he saw four things that completely shattered his composure – An old man, a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic". The first three scenes brought home to him the harsh realities and inevitabilities of old age, sickness and death. The fourth pointed out the way of dealing with these inevitabilities. Siddhartha left his home and family; he tore himself away from everyone and rode towards the forest. He wandered in his quest for knowledge for six years, seeking the truth. Siddhartha attached himself to teachers, such as Alāra Kalāma and Udraka Ra̅maputra, but was not satisfied by their instruction. Accompanied by five wandering ascetics (Assaji, Mahānāma, Vappa, Bhaddiya and Kondanna), he also practised severe austerities with the belief that the mind became elevated by emaciating the body until he was reduced to a skeleton. However, at the end of six years, he then realized that he must nourish his body and try to attain peace of mind by partaking in food again. His companions misread his intentions and abandoned him, thinking he had compromised his asterism. The Siddhartha ultimately attained Buddhahood and became known as the Buddha, the enlightened one or the awakened one. Here, it is essential to note that the significance is laid so much on the Enlightenment because it is what made Gautama, the Buddha when he discovered the law of causation or pattica samuppa̅da, which is a cycle of twelve causes and effects conditioning the universe which had not been thought before by anyone. The Buddha opens the discourse by advising the monks to avoid the two extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification as follows: These two extremes, O Bhikkhus, should not be followed by one who has left home to live a homeless life. What are these two extremes? The giving up to the pleasures of sense, which is base, vulgar, wordy, ignoble and profitless. Giving up on self-mortification is painful, ignoble, and profitless. In the King of Samādhi Sutra, the Buddha said: Existence and non-existence are extremes, Purity and impurity are extremes as well, Thus, having relinquished both extremes, The wise do not dwell even in the middle. The Nāgārjuna explained: To say "it is" is a conception of permanence, To say "it is not" is a view of nihilism, Therefore, the learned should dwell In neither existence nor non-existence.
PanchsīlaVersus Panch Anuvrata A Comparative Study
The Shramana faith in India includes Jainism and Buddhism. A Shramana, also called Sramana in Sanskrit and Samana in Pali, is an itinerant monk in ascetic Indian traditions. Notable religious leaders among the Shramanas were Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Vardhamana Mahavira was the founder of Jainism and the last Tirthankara of the Jainas. Among his many titles are "a great Brahmin," "a great preacher," "a great guardian," "a great pilot," and "a great recluse." He is also referred to as a Supreme Personality. He was born in 599 B.C. and died in 527 B.C. He was the second son of the Kshatriya family in Magadha1. His father, Siddhartha, belonged to the Kashyap gotra and the clan of Jnatrikas Kshatriyas, and his mother was Trisala. On the day of his birth, all prisoners were released, and public celebrations lasting ten days marked the occasion. At the age of 30, he left his family and set out in search of true knowledge On the other hand, Gautam Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. Born in Lumbini, near Kapilavastu, as a prince of the Kapilavastu monarch in 567 B.C., he abandoned his family to pursue enlightenment. He attained the higher knowledge at Gaya. During that period when both schools of thought were growing and expanding, there didn't seem to be any competition between them. This is because both religions almost believed in the same facts and philosophy of life. However, they disagreed on certain views, such as salvation and the soul, which led them to part ways.
A Historical study of the Spiti Valley: Tracing the footprints of Tibetan Buddhism and its early dissemination
The Spiti valley, situated in the south-western corner of the Tibetan Plateau, is known to scholars of Tibetan studies due to its close association with Rinchen Zangpo (Lochen Rinchen sZangpo) and its early history. Rinchen Zangpo initiated a significant campaign to spread Buddhism in western Tibet during the late 10th century, a period referred to as the "Second Diffusion of Buddhism" in Tibetan Buddhist history. Spiti, which was part of the newly established Guge Kingdom at that time, actively supported Rinchen Zangpo's endeavors by assisting in the construction of temples, monasteries, and other structures, as well as in the translation of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit to Tibetan. Among the key locations for these activities in Spiti was the ancient Tabo Monastery or Tabo Chos-Khor Monastery, which was built in 996 A.D. Research into the rich Buddhist heritage of Spiti and its connection to the "Second dissemination of Buddhism" has provided insight into the region during that period. However, there has been a lack of focus on Spiti's earlier history, leading to limited knowledge of its past until the 10th century. Notable intellectuals from the area, such as Angrup Lahauli and Dngos grup garsha pa, have emphasized that Spiti's history can be traced back to the 10th century, with scarce reliable references to its earlier history in classical texts or inscriptions. Historians preceding my research have categorized the history of Spiti into three distinct phases. A synthesis of four assumptions sourced from English, Hindi, and Tibetan references provides a logical framework for understanding the early history of Spiti, drawing on source documents and fieldwork. As per the assertions in the sources, Spiti was under the rule of Hindu Sena monarchs during the 7th century, as documented by Hutchison & Vogel (1919; 1920a; 1933). From the mid-seventh century to the mid-ninth century, Spiti operated under taxation system known as Khangchen, which mirrored the military administration structure of the preceding Tibetan Empire.
Vipassanā- Ekāyano ayaṁ, maggo sattānaṁ visuddhiyā
In Buddhism the universe and the life therein are governed by the natural law of Cause and Conditions and conditionally originated phenomena, creating a self –sustaining mechanism. “The principle of Dependent Origination.” In this paper, we present the content of Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta in context of principle of Dependent Origination and the way how to meditate as defined in this sutta. The utmost efforts are being made to justify the title as per the teachings of the Great Buddha. This paper covers under the subtitles- The Way of meditation leading for liberation, a brief of Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta and ultimately Conclusion, Bibliography.
Teachings and Spreading of Zen Buddhism in Southeast Asia
Zen Buddhism, also known as Chan Buddhism, originated in China during the Tang dynasty, and later spread to other parts of Asia, including Southeast Asia. While Zen is most closely associated with Japan, its influence and presence in Southeast Asia are notable and form an essential part of the region's religious and cultural landscape. Here is a detailed exploration of Zen Buddhism in Southeast Asia.